2003 FINE Day Conference

Making Science Inclusive and Accessible

Greg Stefanich and Lyn Countryman

University of Northern Iowa

The presentations will demonstrate different proven approaches to teaching science through multi-modality learning. Included in the framework will be suggestions for modification and enrichment for students with disabilities and unique learning needs. Segments will be interspersed with discussion, questions, and sharing about utilizing inclusive practice to meet the needs of all students in a science classroom.

Oftentimes when we mention the achievement gap, the gap we speak of is between minority students and Caucasian students. There are many inferences about why the gap exists, from biased standardized tests to less money spent in predominately black schools, lack of motivation or lack of family support for education. An equal amount of attention has been given to proposed solutions, but the most substantial findings concerning narrowing the gap focus on quality teaching. Improving the quality of teaching raises achievement of all students and reduces the gap between minority and Caucasian students. We would agree with Singham (April, 2003) when he said, "the gap we should be focusing on is the difference between where all students are now and where we believe they should be."

Singham, Mano (April, 2003), The Achievement Gap: Myths and Reality, Phi Delta Kappan, pp. 586-591.

GREGORY P. STEFANICH

University of Northern Iowa

Cedar Falls, Iowa 5O614-0606

1971 Ed.D. University of Montana Curriculum & Supervision

1968 M.S. University of Minnesota Science Education

1965 B.S. University of Minnesota, Duluth Chemistry, General Science

Professor (1981) University of Northern Iowa 1976-1983, 1985-present

Acting Department Head, Curriculum and Instruction 1986-1988, 1996-1997

Coordinator of Doctoral Studies, C & I 1986-1997

Department Head, C & I Lamar University 1983-1985

Asst./Assoc. Professor Montana State University 1971-1976

Visiting Prof., Physics Ed University of Washington Summer 1973

Instructor University of Montana 1970-1971

Graduate Assistant University of Montana 1969-1970

Teacher, Grade 8 Chisholm Jr. High School, MN 1967-1969

Teacher, Grades 3-6, 9-12 United School District # 7, ND 1965-1967

• Hubbard Award for Outstanding Educator at the University of Northern Iowa (2003)

• Ross A. Nielsen Professional Service Award, University of Northern Iowa (1998).
• College of Education Excellence in Service Award, University of Northern Iowa, (1996).
• Distinguished Scholar Award, University of Northern Iowa, (1994).
• Regents Award for Faculty Excellence, Iowa Board of Regents, (1993).
• R.P. Brimm Award for Outstanding Contributions to Middle Level Education in Iowa, (1983).
• President's Award for Outstanding Contributions to Middle level Education, National Middle School Association, (1981).

• 2 Years as Head of Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Lamar University, (1983-1985).
• 3 Years as Acting Head of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Northern Iowa, (1986-1988, 1996-1997).
• 11 Years as the Coordinator of Doctoral Studies in Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Northern Iowa, (1986-1997).
• 8 Years as the Coordinator of Middle level Education at the University of Northern Iowa, (1976-1983).
• 5 Years as Associate State Director for the North Central Association, (1978-1983).
• Administered the restructuring of 63 Undergraduate Teacher Education majors and Minors through the university curriculum process and State Department of Education Approval (Lamar University).
• Administered the restructuring of 5 Undergraduate Programs and 21 Graduate Programs through the university curriculum process and State Department of Education Approval (University of Northern Iowa).
• Service on School Advisory Committees and direct work with administrators, school boards and parent groups on school restructuring.
• Service as an expert witness and consultant on cases of school non-attendance.

• Worked with 6 different American Indian/Alaskan Native communities through workshops, in-service programs, and university continuing education course offerings (Blackfeet, Chippewa, Crow, Northern Cheyenne, Salish and Yupik).
• Past President and active board member for the Association of Science Education for Persons with Disabilities.
• Active service with science for persons with disabilities since 1978.
• 21 Overseas school evaluations including schools in Crete, Germany, Greece, Japan, Korea, Okinawa, Panama, People's Republic of China and Spain.
• Conducted Equity Review for on-demand assessments for the New Standards Project.
• Member of the Advisory Committee for the New Standards Project.
• Member, Equity Committee for Project 2061, AAAS.
• Member, Advisory Committee for Disability Access, NSTA.
• Chairperson, Committee on Science for Challenged Populations, AETS.

• 54 Articles published in national journals
• 41 Articles published in regional and state journals
• 3 Books
• 17 Contributions to published books and monographs
• 3 ERIC documents
• 10 Technical reports
• 12 Review panels
• 5 Contributions to curriculum materials
• 1 Video tape
• 15 Editorial review appointments
• 17 Abstracts and reviews
• 3 Audio tapes offered through national organizations
• 1 United States and Canadian Patent
• 2 Elementary science laboratory programs, Contributing Author
• 19 NSF or USOE Grants, Director
• 9 NSF or USOE Grants, Staff Member, Curriculum Consultant
• 9 Internal grant awards

• Consistently receive student evaluations in the highest quartile.
• Instruction to students with disabilities. (DO-IT 1998, 2000)
• Instruction to students at Horizon House Orphanage (Romania, 2000)
• Maintained a teaching level of 12-20 credit hours per semester of course instruction from 1971-1989, along with an advising load of 20 or more graduate student advisees. This was reduced to a 9-hour load beginning in 1989.
• Served as a chairperson, second reader or reviewer for over 150 students receiving Master of Arts in Education Degrees
• Commended for teaching effectiveness on all supervisor evaluations.
• Outstanding Guidance, Support and Expertise, UNI Doctoral Students, (1992).
• Dedication and Support for Advancing Middle Level Education at the University of Northern Iowa Student Recognition Award, (1983).
• Outstanding Science Club in Northeastern Minnesota, (1969).

• 6 International presentations
• 2 International consultations
• 21 Overseas School Evaluations
• 101 National and regional conference presentations
• 39 State conference presentations
• 40 Professional offices and committee memberships for national, regional and state

associations.

• 15+ Ongoing memberships in professional associations.
• 30+ Mini-team visits for the North Central Association.
• Service as the Executive Director for the Iowa Association of Middle Level Educators

from 1978-1983, 1987-1991.

• Consultant and in-service presenter for over 150 individual school districts.
• Director of 30 institutes and regional workshops.
• 28 Keynote addresses.
• Chairperson on 26 school evaluation committees.
• Membership on 40 school evaluation committees.
• 4 Site visits for the United States Office of Education School Recognition Program.
• Consultant for several school districts relating to middle school transition.
• Extensive experience in program assessment and evaluation as a consultant.
• Active service in Partners in Education programs.

Grant Awards (from 19)

Stefanich, G.P. (Director). (2002, January). Inclusive Science Instruction, Iowa Eisenhower Grant Program, $82,800.

Stefanich, G.P. (Director). (2001, February). Award, Improving Opportunities for Students with Disabilities Through Cooperative Dissemination, National Science Foundation, $ 60,398.

Stefanich, G.P. (Director). (2000, February). Communication/Dissemination Project on Science Education Resources for Students with Disabilities, National Science Foundation, $45,178.

Stefanich, G.P. (Director). (1995-2000). Systemic Assistance for Teaching Science to Students with Disabilities. National Science Foundation. $285, 050.

Stefanich, G. P. (Ed.). (2001) , Science teaching in inclusive classrooms: theory and foundations. Cedar Falls, IA: Woolverton.

Stefanich, G. P. (Ed). (2001) , Science teaching in inclusive classrooms: models and applications. Cedar Falls, IA: Woolverton.

Stefanich, G. P. (1987). The cascade model: A dynamic approach to classroom discipline. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt.

Miner, D. (Editor), (2001). Teaching chemistry to students with disabilities. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.

Lynch, S., Atwater M., Cawley J., Eccles J., Lee, O., Mannett, C,, Rojas-Medlin, D., Secada, W., Stefanich, G.P., Willetto, A. (1998). Chapter: Equity Blueprints for Reform. Project 2061, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Oxford University Press, New York.

Stainback, W., Stainback, S., Stefanich, G.P., & Alper, S. (1996). "Learning in inclusive classrooms: What about the curriculum?" in Susan Stainback and William Stainback, (Eds.), Inclusion: A Guide for Educators (pp. 209-220). Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes Publishing Company.

Stefanich, G.P. & Norman, K.I. (1996). Teaching Science to Students With Disabilities: Experiences and Perceptions of Classroom Teachers and Science Educators. Association for the Education of Teachers inScience.

Stefanich, G. P. et.al. (1994) Bibliography of Publications Relating to the Teaching of Science to Students with Disabilities. Cedar Falls, IA: University of Northern Iowa. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 374 998).

National Journals (from 54)

Hadzigeorgiou, Y., & Stefanich, G.P. (2001). Imaginaton in science education. Contempory Education. 71(4), 23-29.

Kumar, D., Ramasamy, R. & Stefanich, G. (2001) Science for students with visual impairments. Electronic Journal of Science Education. 5(3). http://unr.edu/homepage/crowther/ejse/ejsev5n3.html

Norman K., Caseau, D.& Stefanich, G. (1998). Teaching students in inclusive classrooms. Science Education,82: 127-146.

Stainback, S. B., Stainback, W., & Stefanich, G. P. (1996). Learning together in inclusive classrooms: What about the curriculum. Teaching Exceptional Children. 28(3), 14-20.

Stefanich, G. P. (1995). What research says about teaching and instruction for students with disabilities. Journal of the Science Association for Persons with Disabilities, 3, 3-10.

Stefanich, G.P. (1994, Spring). Science educators as active collaborators in meeting the educational needs of students with disabilities. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 5, 1-8.

• When students don’t learn there is something wrong with the student.

• Reading is the most important life skill taught during the early years of schooling.

• Facts are difficult to learn.

• Good science teaching requires expensive equipment and materials.

• There are many aspects in laboratory science learning which students with disabilities cannot participate.

Safety is a major concern in teaching science to students with disabilities.

READING SAMPLE

The White Skip was in the hack. He held the hammer. The third man was in the house. The sweepers were poised. The rock must draw the button. The Reds had a guard at the top of the house. They had a scoring rock at the 8 foot. The skip threw the hammer. The sweepers heard, sweep, stop, sweep, stop, sweep. The rock nipped the point and the game was lost. The sweepers were angry.

Who was in the hack? ____________________________________

Who was in the house? ___________________________________

What must the skip draw? _________________________________

What did the rock do? ____________________________________

How did the sweepers feel? ________________________________

Why were the sweepers angry? _____________________________

© Greg P. Stefanich, 1987.

Grade 5:

The batsmen were merciless against the bowlers. The bowlers placed their men in slips and covers. But to no avail. The batsmen hit one four after another with an occasional six. Not once did a ball look like it would hit their stumps or be caught.

Grade 3:

The men were at bat against the bowlers. They did not show any pity. The bowlers placed their men in slips. They placed their men in covers. It did not help. The batsmen hit a lot of fours. They hit some sixes. No ball hit the stump. No ball was caught.

Test:

1. The men were at bat against the ____________.
2. The bowlers placed their men in ____________ and ____________.
3. The batsmen hit a lot of ____________ and an occasional ____________.
4. The balls never hit the ____________.
5. No ball was ____________.

Extra Credit:

What word was used to describe the batsmen? ____________

David Pearson, Center For Reading Research, 1984.

This paper links curricular and instructional adaptations to the research on effective schools. Steps for setting up an inclusive science classroom are presented. The focus of this paper is to help science teachers assess what kinds of curricular and instructional adaptations to make for students in the general education setting and when to make them. Four questions in adapting curriculum and instruction for students with diverse learning needs are addressed:

1. What teacher attributes create an effective inclusive science classroom?
2. When do general classroom teachers need to make adaptations for students?
3. What types of adaptations do these teachers need to implement to meet the needs of diverse learners in the general education setting?
4. What are guidelines for teachers as they plan for an inclusive science classroom?

Students in our schools are educated in inclusive settings now more than ever before. With the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1997, many general educators now need to make adaptations for students with special learning needs. Legislation under No Child Left Behind requires that by 2007 90% of all identified special education students must spend at least 80% of the instructional day in a regular classroom. This presents a challenge for teachers as they strive to create adaptations to meet the learning needs of all students. Fetters, Pickard and Pyle (2003), note that although many teachers have a sincere interest to meet the learning needs of all students, the current emphasis on inclusion remains a source of frustration, misunderstanding and distrust. Teachers frequently feel ill-prepared and without the support they need to be successful with the special needs students in their classes.

Teachers in the general education setting are expected to implement both curricular and instructional adaptations in an effort to meet the needs of diverse learners. Curricular adaptations are defined as any adjustments or modifications in learning expectations, curriculum, content, the environment, instruction, or materials used for learning that enhance a person’s performance or allow at least partial participation in an activity (Baumgart et al., 1982; Udvari-Solner, 1992). Deschenes, Ebeling, and Sprague (1994) have defined instructional adaptations as "The practice of changing the manner in which instruction is delivered in order to meet the needs of individual students including grouping strategies, formats for evaluation, and methods of presenting lessons " (p. 7).

The research on effective schools provides a rationale for making curricular and instructional adaptations for students. Mauer (1996) states:

The research on effective schools has generated a list of conditions that correlate with effective schools. Salvione and Rauhauser (1988) cite the following correlates of effective schools:

• Clear school mission
• Instructional leadership
• Safe and orderly environment
• High expectations for all students
• Home-school relations
• Close monitoring of student progress
• Opportunity to learn and time on learning

Marzano (2003) provides a synthesis of the effective schools research along with a ranking by order of impact on student achievement. The synthesis includes a matrix representing the contributions to best practice by Edmonds (1979a, 1979b); Levine and Lezotte (1990); Marzano, Gaddy, Dean (2000); Sammons (1999); and Scheerens and Bosker (1997). These are:

1. Guaranteed and viable curriculum
2. Challenging goals and effective feedback
3. Parental and community involvement
4. Safe and orderly environment
5. Collegiality and professionalism

It is important to note that the relationship between the student achievement variable and the noted factors are not necessarily linear. It may be the case that if a positive condition exists at an appropriate level, additional refinements may not yield higher levels of student achievement.

Stefanich (1983) has indicated that some characteristics of effective schools are directly related to the classroom teacher. These characteristics can also be linked to teachers who effectively adapt curriculum and instruction to meet the diverse learning needs of students in inclusive settings. The behaviors of teachers in effective schools, as summarized by Stefanich (1983), are as follows:

• Maintain a clear focus on academic goals
• Select instructional goals
• Perceive the students as able learners
• Implement an evaluation system based on individual student learning, rather than on a comparison with other students’ achievements
• Accurately diagnose student learning needs to foster high student achievement
• Prepare lessons (including adaptations) in advance
• Meet students’ needs in both academic achievement and socialization
• Be readily available to consult with students about issues and problems
• Attend staff development courses to continue professional development
• Keep parents informed and involved

In recent years other collaborative research supports the basic effect of school studies done in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. In related publications Eggen (2002), Taylor, et al (2000) and Zeichner (1996) note characteristics of teachers who are able to produce relatively high levels of student achievement in culturally diverse settings. These are:

• Teachers have a clear sense of their own ethnic and cultural identities.
• Teachers are personally committed to achieving equity for all students and believe that they are capable of making a difference in their students’ learning.
• Teachers develop a personal bond with their students in a democratic and cooperative learning atmosphere.
• The curriculum is inclusive of the contributions and perspectives of the different ethno-cultural groups that make up the society.
• Scaffolding is provided by teachers that link the academically challenging and inclusive curriculum to the cultural resources that students bring to school.
• Parents and community members are encouraged to become involved in students’ education and are given a significant voice in making important school decisions in relation to program, i.e., sources and staffing.

Teachers often need to make curricular and instructional adaptations in their efforts to keep students actively engaged in content that is rich with meaningful lessons. School improvement endeavors that center around the effective schools research are based on the notion that all students, including those with special needs, can learn (National Council on Disability, 1989). General education teachers need to know when to make adaptations in curriculum and instruction in order to meet the needs of diverse learners in inclusive settings.

In many instances it is appropriate and necessary for teachers to make curricular and instructional adaptations for students. The research of Scott, Vitale, and Masten (1998) and Mertens and Flowers (2003) indicate classroom practices that are associated with high achievement. These are:

• Teaching practices include modification of specific assignments to allow students opportunities to use reading, writing, and mathematics skills that reflect their level of abilities.
• Teaching practices include modification of instruction to include multiple modalities, varied learning activities, and varied instructional groupings.
• Teaching practices include modification of assessment to include formative assessment, progress in monitoring, and reflective critical thinking by students.

Adaptations are often needed if special education students are to receive appropriate instruction in the content areas. In fact, Stainback, Stainback, and Stefanich (1996 ) have reported that learning core subjects such as social studies, science, and math with peers is beneficial in the long term for students with disabilities, including those with severe disabilities.

But to do this in content areas, such as science, a match needs to exist between the student’s abilities and learning style and the curriculum and instructional methodologies. Stainback et al. (1996) state: "Some students exhibit learned helplessness when there is not a good match between learning objectives and student attributes " (p. 14). In these cases, it is important for that match to exist, and making adaptations for students is one way to create that match. Salisbury et al. (1994) note:

The need for improvement lies not only in classroom practice, but also in the selection and preparation of teachers entering the profession. New teachers must be prepared to address ethnic diversity, disability, and regular classroom instruction simultaneously if they are to be effective. Zeichner (1996) notes several elements in preservice teacher education. These are:

• Admissions procedures screen students on the basis of cultural sensitivity and a commitment to the education of all students, especially poor students of color who frequently do not experience success in school.
• Students are helped to develop a clearer sense of their own ethnic and cultural identities.
• Students are taught about the dynamics of prejudice and racism and about how to deal with them in the classroom.
• Students are taught about the dynamics of privilege and economic oppression and about school practices that contribute to the reproduction of societal inequalities.
• The teacher education curriculum gives much attention to sociocultural research knowledge about the relationships among language, culture, and learning. Students are taught various procedures by which they can gain information about the communities represented in their classrooms.
• Students are taught how to assess the relationships between the methods they use in the classroom and the preferred learning and interaction styles sin their students’ homes and communities.
• Students are taught how to use various instructional strategies sensitive to cultural and linguistic variations and how to adapt classroom instruction and assessment to accommodate cultural resources that their students bring to school.
• Students participate in community field experiences with adults and/or children of another ethno-cultural group with guided reflections.
• Students complete practicum experiences in schools serving ethnic and language minority students.

Benchmark results reported by ACT provide some sobering statistics regarding the preparation of high school students for college biology. One can assume the results will be more limiting for they physical sciences, when and if they are examined. The report from ACT indicates that in order to have a high probability of completing first year college science courses with a grade of C or higher a student should have a benchmark score of 24 or higher. Results of 2003 seniors indicate that 26 % of all high school students taking the test scored at that level. The percentages fell of significantly for minority students to 14 % of Hispanic and American Indian students, 10 % of Mexican American students, and 5 % of African American test takers (Penick, 2003).

Research on effective schools and effective classroom practices supports the integration of special education students into general education classes (National Council on Disability, 1989). Other research has indicated that providing adaptations within the general education classroom instead of pull-out programs may prove to be more effective (Baker & Zigmond, 1990). Research has generated questions about serving mildly disabled students and minority students via pull-out programs (Epps & Tindall, 1987; Idol-Maestas, 1983; Leinhardt, Bickle, & Pallay, 1982; Polloway, 1984 ). As special education students are more fully included in general education classes with high expectations and a challenging curriculum, teachers will be required to determine when adaptations are warranted to meet each individual student’s learning needs.

Effective classroom teachers provide opportunities for all students to participate in a wide variety of content-related lessons (Stellar, 1988). Penick (2003), in noting the lag between science testing as compared to reading and mathematics under the accountability measures of No Child Left Behind, is concerned that science instruction will be reduced in schools until 2007-2008, when science testing begins. The most vulnerable will be those students in "failing schools" in which students in low-socioeconomic areas, minority students, and students with disabilities are overrepresented. In inclusive settings, instruction can be adapted to ensure the academic success of all students (Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy, 1998). So, when the course content is relevant and meaningful to students with disabilities, curricular and instructional adaptations should be made to facilitate learning.

Using individual assessment data is one way for teachers to determine when adaptations are needed. When diagnostic assessment occurs, research has shown the students learn significantly more (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Ferguson, 1992). When teachers make adaptations, the needs of the student should drive the process, not the student’s label or the specific curriculum standard (Cousin & Duncan, 1997). There is such a great difference in students’ learning styles and needs that teachers must carefully examine the instructional requirements of individual students and the variety of instructional methodologies when designing lesson adaptations (Mercer, Lane, Jordan, Allsopp, & Eisele, 1996).

Special and general educators can work collaboratively on making adaptations, using the student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP) as a framework and reference (Golomb & Hammeken, 1996). Myles and Simpson (1989) found that adaptations are most successful when general education teachers are involved in making decisions about designing and implementing the adaptations for students with disabilities. General educators teach students with a wide variety of abilities and background in inclusive settings. For the special education students often included in general ed classrooms for content instruction, the teacher needs to adapt both instructional methods and curriculum (Schumm & Vaughn, 1991).

If teachers are given structures and supports for implementing adaptations, they will use them effectively in the general education classroom (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, & Karns, 1995). Scott, Vitale, and Masten (1998) have also reported that when these support systems are in place, teachers will make the necessary adaptations for students. Staff development courses can offer supports for teachers in their efforts to design effective adaptations for students. However, instructional leadership from administrators and special educators is needed to secure staff development opportunities for teachers to learn about effective teaching practices and how to make adaptations for students with special needs.

Udvari-Solner (1996) found that when teachers decide what adaptations need to be implemented, they engage in a personal, reflective dialog with self-questioning. This leads to these same questions being posed when they meet in a group setting with other educators and parents. Parents often desire the opportunity to work collaboratively with teachers when determining appropriate adaptations for their children (National Council on Disability, 1989). This collaboration can foster positive relations between home and school, one of the effective school correlates (Salvione & Rauhauser, 1988).

According to Udvari-Solner (1996), when teachers use a process of asking questions as a structure to determine when adaptations should be made, it produces the framework for best changing how lessons are developed, structured, and implemented. These questions are summarized below:

1. Can the student actively participate in the lesson without any adaptations and achieve the same outcome?
2. Will student-specific learning objectives need to be written?
3. Can the student’s participation level increase by altering the modality of instruction?
4. Can the student’s participation level be increased by altering the structure of the lesson?
5. Can the student’s participation and comprehension be increased by altering the instructional methods or teaching styles?
6. Can the physical environment be altered to help facilitate participation?
7. Will the student need individual help to ensure participation?
8. Will an alternative activity need to be implemented?

Teachers want all students to be successful in their science classroom. This success can also be achieved in an inclusive science classroom. When creating an inclusive science classroom, Patton (1995) suggests the following guiding principles:

• Science lessons should be hands-on
• Teachers should be facilitators of knowledge, rather than dispensers of knowledge.
• Cooperative groups should be created.
• Teachers need to make curricular and instructional adaptations.
• Theme-based instruction should be utilized.
• Teachers should capitalize on "teachable" moments.
• Teachers need to encourage students to engage in problem-solving exercises.

Many types of adaptations can be implemented in the general education setting, although general education teachers tend to implement routine adaptations such as varying materials or adjusting groups (Fuchs et al., 1995). Adaptations made in the general education setting often include four main categories: time, learning styles and instructional delivery, environment, and adjustments in content (Murphy, Meyers, Oelson, McKean, & Custer, 1998).

Teachers in effective schools, where students consistently achieve, adapt instruction to meet students’ individual needs (Spartz, 1977). In two effective schools in Pittsburgh, Sizemore, Brossard, and Harrigan (1983) found that teachers actively made adaptations in printed materials such as basal readers and their corresponding assessments. Ysseldyke and Algozzine (1990) found that one way teachers adapt instruction is to use specific strategies such as peer tutoring, cooperative learning, behavior management systems, and technology. Class-wide peer tutoring provides each student with chances to work at his or her own instructional level, work as a tutor and tutee, communicate with students with various skill and ability levels, and be engaged in arrangements that center around a collective performance (Delquadri, Greenwood, Stretton, & Hall, 1983).

Activity-oriented approaches to science that address fewer topics but in a more in-depth way can be especially beneficial for students with special needs (Patton, 1995). Both content and activity-oriented approaches can be adapted and modified to meet the diverse learning needs of students. On a regular basis, lesson plans can be modified to include methods, materials, motivational activities, study skills, and/or learning strategies that will provide more opportunities for learner success. Instructional methods should include a wide variety of activities – hands-on experiences as well as reading information from a textbook. Students should be actively engaged in activities that reinforce concepts presented in a number of ways. For instance, building models of plant cells using cell parts made of common materials hung in a shoebox could call students’ attention to sizes and numbers of cell parts and their functions.

Experiments can be "retooled" to include materials that students can more easily use. Students with visual or motor difficulties may need to use larger instruments or materials. Students with difficulty attending to task for long periods of time may benefit from structuring the timing and placement of materials used.

For students with learning difficulties, providing study guides, study sessions that emphasize the use of mnemonic devices, and other learning strategies should increase their likelihood of success. Formatting tests to meet the needs of students who are easily confused by information is generally a good idea as well. For those students who have difficulty remembering large quantities of information and distinguishing between individual bits of information, chunking tests into smaller sections usually helps. Providing these kinds of accommodations may take a great deal of time. Working as a collaborative team, a regular class science teacher can provide the expertise needed to develop content lesson plans and appropriate activities. A special educator can provide the expertise needed in modifying lesson plans to include learning strategies and needed materials/activities to better ensure the success of needy students.

Content centered approaches can also be adapted to meet students’ individual learning needs. An instructional adaptation is the use of advanced organizers. The use of such specific adaptations can be especially beneficial for students with disabilities. In a study of teachers, King-Sears and Cummons (1996) found that when the teachers used advanced organizers at the beginning of the day and at the beginning of lessons to show the sequence and flow of content, students with learning disabilities had fewer questions than when the organizers were not used. The organizers were on the board and often had picture icons to correspond with the text.

Curricular adaptations are often varied according to the content and grade-level expectations. They can be designed for groups of students and for individual students. Booth and Ainscow (1998) have suggested that one type of curricular adaptation is allowing students to participate in setting their own learning and social objectives combined with the teachers’ objectives in the same areas. The students can then evaluate their progress on their goals as well as on the teacher’s goals. However, Stainback et al. (1996) have suggested that writing separate or varying learning outcomes for one student or small groups of students can foster a sense of isolation and separateness in the general education setting.

Adaptation suggestions from Scott, Vitale & Masten (1998), Mastropieri and Scruggs (1995), Deschenes, Ebeling & Spragg (1994), & Shruggs and Mastropieri (1992), are :

1. Modify instruction: Provide classroom demonstrations, adjust the lesson pace, and employ multiple instructional modalities during instruction. Simplify language, pre-teach vocabulary, use mnemonics, use picture clues, implement peer tutoring, and evaluate which vocabulary is essential.
2. Modify assignments: Provide models, shorten assignments, and lower difficulty levels. Adapt the time allowed for learning, task completion, or assessment.
3. Strategies: Teach study skills, test-taking skills, and learning strategies. Modify rate and how material is presented, include visual organizers, present concrete examples, pre-teach prerequisite information, provide additional application activities, use a variety of instructional strategies, provide advanced organizers, integrate other content areas into science, shorten lessons, and provide structure.
4. Alter instructional materials: Provide alternate materials, taping books, and reformatting worksheets. Provide graphic organizers and framed outlines, highlight important vocabulary and key concepts, implement partner reading, provide tape-recorded readings of text selections, and use trade books at various reading levels.

 

5. Vary instructional groups: Use peer tutoring and cooperative learning groups,.
6. Facilitate progress monitoring: Read tests orally, provide study guides, allow students to retake tests, and modify grading criteria. Provide authentic and performance-based assessment that can be easily linked to scientific processes, allow for multiple opportunities to demonstrate acquired knowledge and skills, implement portfolio assessment, teach test-taking skills and study techniques.

Teachers in effective inclusive classrooms may use one or a combination of several of these adaptation types to meet the needs of diverse learners in the content areas. Classroom teachers should choose adaptations that allow students to remain actively engaged and participating in the lesson and any corresponding activities whenever possible.

While general education teachers do implement a wide variety of adaptations to meet student needs, they do not always find that all types of adaptations are as readily implemented as others. Adaptations rated most feasible in a study by Johnson and Pugach (1990) centered around using positive methods and multi sensory techniques that were readily integrated into daily classroom routines. Adaptations less favorably rated involved dealing with students individually. Ysseldyke, Thurlow, Wotruba, and Nania (1990) found that teachers rated the following methods of desirable classroom adaptations: identifying alternate ways to manage student behavior, implementing alternative instructional methodologies, using a variety of instructional materials, and using alternative grouping practices.

Teachers use typical adaptations more frequently than substantial adaptations. Typical adaptations include altering the format of directions, assignments, or testing procedures. Substantial adaptations include changing the difficulty level for students, such as implementing altered objectives, assigning less complex work, and providing texts with lower readability levels (Munson,1986). This research suggested that even though there are a wide variety of adaptation types, teachers will implement the types they are comfortable with and understand. Teachers in effective schools feel that they have the instructional freedom to alter instruction and assignments to meet the individual needs of their students (Jackson, Logsdon, & Taylor, 1983). When teachers understand typical and substantial adaptations and believe that they have the freedom to make such adaptations, students in inclusive settings benefit.

General educators can successfully adapt curriculum and instruction in all subject areas, and science is no exception. Adapting science curriculum and instruction provides special needs students with rich experiences that they may not receive in self-contained settings. However, adapting curriculum in science can present special challenges. Without administrative support, support from special educators, a positive and cooperative school climate, and disability-specific teaching skills the challenges can become overwhelming to a regular classroom teacher

Science is conducive to inclusion, as it has a strong base of research supporting the value of hands-on multi modality instruction as a superior form of instructional delivery. Teaching science in an inclusive setting is one way for students with special needs to receive quality science instruction. Special education students often miss science instruction when they are pulled out to receive special education services. Often when these students do receive science instruction, it is from special educators who have little, if any, training in science instruction (Gurganus, Janas, & Schmitt, 1995).

Adapting science instruction to meet the needs of special education students is not always an easy task. It does, however, provide students with the opportunity to experience science in a content-rich environment. When teachers make adaptations in curriculum, instruction, and materials in the inclusive science classroom, students with special needs can interact with their peers and receive quality science instruction.

Creating an inclusive science classroom is a balance of designing an accepting environment, implementing effective instruction techniques, and adapting curriculum, materials, and instruction. Inclusive science classrooms are important for students. Patton (1995) states:

Teachers need to make adaptations when students are not successfully meeting the demands of the general education setting, when the learning style or skills of a student do not match the instructional delivery or content objectives (Stainback et al., 1996). Curricular and instructional adaptations in the science classroom are similar to those in other content areas. However, science adaptations can sometimes pose special challenges due to the nature of experiments and the materials used. Teachers must plan lesson adaptations in advance and anticipate difficulties that students may encounter with the materials needed or the science activity. In inclusive settings, where adaptations are made, all children can learn, feel a sense of belonging, and achieve their educational and social goals.

Suggested Accommodations by Disability Area

• Examine accessibility to materials and movement needs of the student.
• Provide a supportive peer assistant (preferably someone that has had the class previously) or adult aide.
• Allow extra time for student and peers to continue with activities of choice outside of regular school day or at home.
• If student has limited motor control, consider tools or supports to serve as aids; have students work in groups.
• Provide a computer with software for the student to record observations and responses.
• All aisles should be at least one meter wide.
• Review work areas for appropriate height and accessibility of supplies and equipment.
• Examine trafficking needs of the student.
• Review classroom environment to insure that student has appropriate access to peers for socialization and cooperative learning groups.
• Provide accessible means of reviewing drawings, charts, graphs, and/or models.
• Examine testing area for comfort of the student.
• If physical response is difficult, provide an assistive responding device.
• Provide low-force micro-switches for lighting and laboratory equipment.
• Look for adaptive software, keyboards, special switches, touch screen, and other special equipment.
• Alter size of equipment and provide handles or other supports on supplies.
• Be especially careful if the student does not have good tactile sensory receptors. Severe burns can occur from hot water, chemicals, heat sources, etc.
• Plan appropriate breaks.

• Provide a supportive peer assistant or adult aide.
• Identify yourself and other group members before beginning a conversation.
• Think through verbal directions in advance, provide large print or Braille directions.
• Allow extra time for student and peers to continue with activities of choice outside of school day or at home.
• Look for software and talking books relating to topics you teach.
• Review the workspace and brainstorm about accommodations that might allow the student greater participation in the activities.
• Search out adaptive equipment and supplies and make them available to the student (i.e. tactile meter sticks, probe-ware, oral thermometers, etc.)
• Make sure aisles, laboratory workstations, selves and walkways are kept clean.
• Models, raised line drawing, or thermo forms should be provided-most verbal descriptions will be insufficient.
• Use proper scale and accuracy on models and drawing.
• Provide Braille text of enlarged type if desired.
• Review directions with the student.
• Use tactile or auditory signals when appropriate.
• Provide a magnifier if desired.
• Check the testing environment for distractions, both lighting and noise.
• Maximize availability of visual media and/or models.
• Clearly label items or equipment.
• Allow for direct manipulations of material when appropriate.
• Get feedback from student.
• Allow more time.

• Locate student in the classroom seating for direct eye and lip visibility.
• Secure student eye contact before speaking.
• Keep your face and lips visible to the deaf student when speaking.
• Slow your speech and speak clearly.
• Repeat responses of other students, or delay individual responses until the student has good eye contact with the speaker.
• Pre-teach vocabulary and allow student to explore the materials prior to the lesson.
• Provide a supportive peer assistant to assist during the activities.
• Allow extra time for student and peers to engage in activities of choice outside of school day and at home.
• Prepare printed directions in advance and laminate a copy so the direction sheets last longer.
• Have interpreter accessible if desired.
• Review directions with the student.
• Review lighting and background for appropriateness.
• Communicate with the student concerning any interference from background noises.
• Search out adaptive equipment and supplies and make them available to the student (i.e. probe-ware, oscilliscopes, etc.)
• Maximize availability of visual media and/or models.
• Allow for direct manipulation of material when appropriate.
• Clearly label items or equipment.
• Get feedback from student.
• Allow more time.

• Pre-teach vocabulary and allow student to explore materials prior to the lesson.
• Seek out resources for visual media and models.
• Provide a reader when appropriate.
• Allow for non-competitive participation.
• Provide a teacher associate when appropriate.
• Eliminate distractions.
• Review directions in advance.
• Give undivided attention to the student.
• Allow for signaled response.
• Don’t pretend to understand if you do not.
• Focus on what is said, not how well it is said.
• Listen patiently.
• Allow more time.
• Review lighting and background for appropriateness.
• Eliminate background noises.
• Maximize availability of visual media and/or models.
• Clearly label items or equipment.
• Allow for direct manipulation of material when appropriate.
• Get feedback from student.
• Provide a reader when appropriate.
• For students with perceptual problems, avoid computer answer sheets. Allow alternative response modes (i.e. circles or dictation).
• Consider pacing.

• Pre-teach vocabulary and allow student to explore materials prior to the lesson.
• Position student so there is good visibility and opportunity for proximity control.
• Seek out resources for visual media and models.
• Slow down pace of activities and allow adequate time for student participation.
• Provide a non-obtrusive teaching associate when appropriate.
• Write a contract with the student specifying what behavior is expected.
• Eliminate distractions.
• Review medications and the effect on the student.
• Consider this in planning testing schedule.
• Be straight forward.
• Allow for time out if a student needs it.
• Review directions in advance.
• Give undivided attention to the student.
• Allow for signaled response.
• Don’t pretend to understand if you do not.
• Focus on what is said, not how well it is said.
• Listen patiently.
• Allow more time.
• Review lighting and background for appropriateness.
• Eliminate background noises.
• Maximize availability of visual media and/or models.
• Clearly label items or equipment.
• Allow for direct manipulation of material when appropriate.
• Get feedback from student.
• For students with perceptual problems, allow alternative response modes (i.e. circles or dictation).

• Provide pre-instruction on vocabulary; select vocabulary appropriate for the student’s learning.
• Allow student to explore the materials in advance and provide advanced instruction whenever possible.
• Provide a supportive peer or teacher associate to assist with activities.
• Allow for group signaled response in a non-threatening environment.
• Allow extra time for student.
• Provide a teacher associate when appropriate.
• Encourage the student to engage in activities of choice outside of the school day or at home.
• Prepare "take home" activities that the student can practice with a supportive adult.
• Review directions in advance.
• Examine vocabulary in advance and consider options.
• Review lighting and background for appropriateness.
• Eliminate background noises.
• Maximize availability of visual media and/or models.
• Allow for direct manipulation of material when appropriate.
• Get feedback from student.
• Allow more time.

• Review directions in advance of activities and clarify expectations.
• When appropriate, write a contract in advance specifying what behavior is expected and where a student can go if he/she begins to experience frustration.
• On group response activities, seat student in location to minimize distraction and provide close teacher proximity.
• Be patient and supportive.
• Provide student with supportive and non-competitive peers.
• Establish a pre-determined signal or utilize an unobtrusive teacher associate to intervene when the student begins to demonstrate impulsive behavior.
• Don’t pretend to understand if you do not.
• Focus on what is said, no how well it is said.
• Allow more time when appropriate.

• Pre-teach vocabulary.
• Allow for signaled responses.
• Allow for computer or written responses.
• Allow student an opportunity to volunteer; listen and be patient; support efforts of communication in class; allow the student opportunity to communicate what he/she has learned in private.
• Provide a supportive peer assistant.
• Present a multi-modality output so student can reach information visually or tactually.
• Prepare "take home" activities that the student can practice with a supportive adult.
• Prepare printed directions in advance and laminate a copy so the direction sheets last longer.
• Don’t pretend to understand if you do not.
• Focus on what is said, not how well it is said.
• Allow for computer or written response.
• Listen patiently.
• Allow more time.

• Provide pre-teaching experience on vocabulary and practice the activities in the sequence prior to the lesson in class.
• Provide a supportive peer assistant of the same gender to work together on the activities.
• Slow the pace of activities to allow for student’s participation.
• If necessary, allow a teacher associate to assist with and/or conduct activities with the student.
• Review the routines ahead of time and provide a consistent structure and organization.
• Seat the student in close proximity to the teacher.
• Allow for non-competitive participation.
• Present multi-modality lessons so the student can receive the information visually or tactually.
• Allow for extra time outside of the school day to allow the student to practice in a quiet, non-distracting environment.
• Provide an area and opportunity for quiet.
• Establish a walking area to allow physical release in a quiet and safe area.
• Provide consistent structure and organization.
• Label areas for specific activities and consider color coding as a means of categorization.
• Establish a seating arrangement in cooperation with the student, maintain consistency.
• Provide digital rather than face clocks whenever possible.
• Provide a physical outlet such as a "squeeze ball" to provide a physical outlet to enable a longer seating period for the student.
• Routines should be consistent and clear.
• Work with guardians and try to establish consistency between school and home—think ahead about fire drills, tornado drills, etc., plan a consistent routine for the student and a peer helper.
• Communicate with teacher associates in advance, whenever possible another adult familiar with the child should be in the classroom to help.
• Establish consistency and some form or advanced organizer to help student become attentive to transitions, i.e. cues, signal, music, lights

• Examine trafficking needs of the student.
• Provide a pre-teaching experience prior to classroom activities; allow the student to explain the lessons and review the vocabulary.
• Provide a supportive peer assistant of the same gender to work together with the student.
• Prepare all of the materials in Braille and thermo form in advance.
• Use tactile signals.
• Allow additional time.
• Prepare "take home" activities that the student can practice with a supportive adult.
• Investigate all possibilities for the utilization of adaptive computing.
• May need assistive responding device.
• Review work areas for appropriate height and accessibility of supplies and equipment.
• Examine trafficking needs of the student.
• Review classroom environment to insure that student has appropriate access to peers for socialization and cooperative learning groups.
• Provide accessible means of reviewing drawings, charts, graphs, and/or models
• Models, raised-line drawing or thermo forms should be provided.
• Use proper scale and accuracy on models and drawings.
• Allow for response with computer or tape recorder.
• Review directions with the student.
• Use tactile signals.
• Clearly label items or equipment with Braille.
• Get feedback from student.

• Provide pre-teaching experience using the actual materials; practice the activities in sequence.
• If appropriate, write a contract with the student specifying what behavior is expected.
• If appropriate, provide a supportive peer assistant of the same gender.
• Determine if the student has a sensitive touch response and plan appropriately.
• Slow down and use appropriate pacing.
• Provide student with good visibility; use unobtrusive proximity control.
• Search out resources for visual media and models.
• Eliminate distractions.
• Review medications and the effect on the student.
• Consider this in planning testing schedule.
• Be straight forward.
• Allow for time out if a student needs it.
• Review directions in advance.
• Give undivided attention to the student.
• Allow for signaled response.
• Don’t pretend to understand if you do not.
• Focus on what is said, not how well it is said. Listen patiently.
• Allow more time.
• Review lighting and background for appropriateness.
• Eliminate background noises.
• Maximize availability of visual media and/or models.
• Clearly label items or equipment.
• Allow for direct manipulation of material when appropriate.
• Get feedback from student when appropriate.
• Provide a reader when appropriate.
• For students with perceptual problems, avoid computer answer sheets. Allow alternative response modes (i.e. circles or dictation)
• Consider pacing.

• Talk with the student and determine activities that are appropriate and desirable for the student.
• Communicate with guardians and other health professionals to determine any dangers of over-strenuous participation.
• Prepare "take home" activities that the student can practice with a supportive adult.
• Allow for non-competitive participation.
• Review your pacing.
• Be aware of the student and watch for any fluctuations that indicate discomfort or evidence of medication side effects.
• In cases of uncertainty, don’t hesitate to discuss issues tactfully with the student, in private whenever possible.
• Become familiar with the impairment. If it is degenerative, become familiar with the symptoms and progression.
• Provide encouragement.
• Always keep in mind opportunities for socialization and interaction with others.
• Use peer helpers in appropriate ways.
• Plan in advance.
• Review learning priorities in the case of extended absence and organize appropriate make-up lessons during the regular period of instruction.
• Don’t make assumptions about when and where the student needs help, offer assistance but don’t insist.
• Be aware of side effects of medication and understand fluctuations, during exacerbations the student may appear as if intoxicated—slurred speech, staggering, unfocused eyes.

• Determine specific impairment and establish learning priorities.
• Pre-teach; allow student to explore materials and learn appropriate vocabulary in advance.
• Prepare "take home" activities that the student can practice with a supportive adult.
• Control pacing and provide encouragement.
• Remain in communication with the student, guardians and other professionals.
• Determine the degree of accommodation and assistance required.
• Provide encouragement.
• Always keep in mind opportunities for socialization and interaction with others.
• Use peer helpers in appropriate ways.
• Plan in advance.